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Background.
With the exception of water, glucose is the most abundant molecule in
biological systems. We eat, write on, and wear polymeric glucose.
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Dietary
carbohydrates are polymers containing this simple sugar, represented
by its empirical formula as C6H12O6; beta-glucose, one of the cyclic
forms of this molecule is shown here. The disaccharide sucrose, table
sugar, is digested to produce its monomeric components: glucose and
fructose. |
 Deckle Edge of Handmade Paper, logo of Handpapermaking Association |
In
addition to glucose-containing sugars, we also consume this material
in the form of the more complex carbohydrates: starch and cellulose,
members of a class of longer polymers called polysaccharides. Mammals
do not readily digest and hydrolyze cellulose, the structural fibers
of plants and trees. The relative stability of cellulose to hydrolysis
allows its use in paper and textiles. In fact, cellulose is the major
molecular component of all paper, whether derived from cotton, flax,
wood pulp, or mulberry (kozo, the most widely used fiber in oriental
papers). |
| Not all textiles, another fiber art, contain cellulose. Cloth can be made from cellulosic fibers—cotton and flax (the source of linen)—or protein in the form of wool and silk. In addition to glucose, cellulose in nature contains a small percentage of acidic sugars—ones with a carboxylic acid functional group. The hydroxyl groups of its sugar components hold cellulose fibers together through extensive hydrogen bonding networks. The degree of ionization of the carboxylic acid groups of cellulose and of the wool and silk proteins determine the charge on the fibers of these materials. Leaning how environmental conditions effect these fibers at a molecular level provides the background for Chemistry 103 students to understand a variety of processes in fiber arts: Commercial processes for producing paper, conservation of books and works of art on paper, and dyeing of textiles. |  |
| Palepai (ceremonial hanging): Handspun cotton and silk from Lampung region, Sumatra, Indonesia, 19th century. From the Museum of Textiles in Toronto |
References
A.
Chemistry and structure of cellulose and related compounds
1. Mills, John S. and White, Raymond. The organic chemistry of museum
objects, 2nd edition. London: Butterworth Heinemann. Chap. 6 "Carbohydrates:
sugars and polysaccharides" provides a good overview of the chemistry
of these materials in the context of conservation of museum objects.
2. Snyder, Carl H. The extraordinary chemistry of everyday things. New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Chap. 14, pp. 372-398, "Carbohydrates,"
provides an interesting overview of this group of chemicals.
B. Textiles
1. Butler, Sara and Malott, Sally (1981) Textile chemistry for the artist.
Journal of Chemical Education 58: 295.
2. Kauffman, George B. (1993) Rayon: The first semi-synthetic fiber product
(PROD)" Journal of Chemical Education 70: 887.
3. Letcher, Trevor M. and Lutseke, Nothando S. (1990) A closer look at
cotton, rayon, and polyester fibers. Journal of Chemical Education 67:
361.
4. Orna, Mary Virginia and Goodstein, Madeline P. (1998) Chemistry and
artists’ colors, 2nd edition. p.265-274. Philadelphia, PA: Chemical
Heritage Foundation.
C. Paper
1. Dempsey, David (1995) The history and technology of papermaking. Northampton,
MA: Smith College Museum of Art.
2. Roberts, J. C. (1996) The chemistry of paper. Cambridge: Royal Society
of Chemistry
3. Carter, Henry A. (1997) Thenchemistry of paper preservation: Part 4.
Alkaline paper. Journal of Chemical Education 74:508.
4. Carter, Henry A. (1996) The chemistry of paper preservation: Part 3.
The strengthening of paper. Journal of Chemical Education 73:1160. 10.
5. Carter, Henry A. (1996) The chemistry of paper preservation: Part 2.
The yellowing of paper and conservation bleaching. Journal of Chemical
Education 73: 1068.
6. Carter, Henry A. (1996) The chemistry of paper preservation: Part 1.
The aging of paper and conservation techniques.(1996) Journal of Chemical
Education 73, 417.
D. Indigo Dyeing
1. Boykin, David W. (1998) A convenient apparatus for small-scale dyeing
with indigo Journal of Chemical Education 75, 769.
2. McKee, James R. and Zanger, Murray. (1991)A microscale synthesis of
indigo: Vat dyeing (ML). Journal of Chemical Education 68, A242.
1. Torimoto, Norboru. (1987) An indigo plant as a teaching material. Journal
Chemistry Education 64, 332
2. Balfour-Paul, Jenny (1998) Indigo, London: British Museum Press.
Experiment
Download
PDF: Paper Making and Properties
of Paper
Links
1.
From Sewanee web site:
http://www.sewanee.edu/chem/Chem%26Art/default.html
2. Making paper by hand:
a. Institute of Paper Science and Technology website: http://www.ipst.edu/amp/museum_virtual_tour.htm
b. Handpapermaking Association: http://www.handpapermaking.org/.
Articles for beginning papermakers: http://www.handpapermaking.org/ArticlesforBeginnersIndex.html
3. Cellulose Structure and Chemistry
a. Comparison of cellulose and starch:
http://www.eng.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/Biotech-Environ/FUNDAMNT/cellulos.htm
and http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/starlose.htm
as well as http://www.psrc.usm.edu/macrog/cell.htm
(Chime Structures)
b. Carbohydrates: http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/1biochem/carbo5.html#
c.
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/jgsmith/chem202/Handouts/threeDimensionalShape.pdf
d. Comparison of cellulose and amylose (Chime structures):
http://www.chem.vt.edu/chem-dept/helm/3434WOOD/chime/cell.html
e. Chime Structures of Glucose and its polymers: http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/BiochemMols/LectMols/GlucoseL.htm
and
http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/mim/bristol/glucose/glucose_text.htm
4. Textile Museums:
a. American Textile History Museum in Lowell, MA: http://www.athm.org/sites/athm24/welcome.html
b. Textile Museum in Washington, DC specializing in non-western cultures:
http://www.textilemuseum.org/mission.htm
c. Textile collection at the NY Metropolitan Museum of Art: http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/department.asp?dep=20
5. Mass deacidification of acidic papers as part of a large on-line site
for conservation materials:
http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/.
- Professor Margaret Merritt,
Wellesley College Chemistry Department
- Created by: Leslie Chang '04 & Jerina Hajno '04
- Page Created: July 23, 2001
- Last Modified: August 9, 2001
- Page Expires: August 31, 2002