Notes on Source Acknowledgement

Stated simply, plagiarism is the use of another person's words, idea(s), opinions, or theory without proper acknowledgement. Plagiarism is a serious form of academic dishonesty which may be committed in a variety of ways. Most common incidents of plagiarism involve: misrepresenting another author's work as one's own: submitting work prepared by another student as one's own: presenting a lab report that misrepresents the work actually done.

Following is an outline of key points to remember when writing papers or preparing assignments.

I. Acknowledging Sources

A. Direct Quotation. The first and essential principle is to footnote all quotations, no matter how short, even if they are only two or three words.

B. Paraphrase. To avoid using long quotations, paraphrasing is recommended. When restating another's idea(s) on your own words, it is important to credit properly the source from which the material has been gathered.

C. General Acknowledgement.

1. If your work has been generally influenced by the studies or interpretations of another, that source should be cited, even if direct quotation(s) or paraphrasing from that source has not been employed.

2. If the influence of another's work has led to particular points, interpretations, or conclusions in your paper, that source should be footnoted, even if you are not paraphrasing from specific pages.

3. For an authoritative and thorough discussion of source acknowledgement, the varieties of plagiarism, and pointers for avoiding academic dishonesty, read the excerpted work by Martin, Ohmann, and Wheatley, "Definition of Plagiarism".

D. Collaborative Effort.

1. When preparing course work, students should follow individual instructor's policy on collaboration.

2. When the instructor permits, collaboration among students, the use of another student's work or ideas should be credited properly. This includes laboratory reports, problem sets, computer programs, and papers.

II. Paper Writing Pointers

• When taking notes, make sure to differentiate between your thoughts and the author's.
• When writing the bibliography, be sure to include all works that you consulted when gathering information even if you did not quote from them or need to footnote them.
• Cite information received from interviews or other people in the bibliography.
• Since your research notes are the basis of your paper, it is essential that in your notes you distinguish between your ideas and the material culled from other sources. When taking notes, always use direct quotation marks if you are quoting directly.
• Establish with your instructor what method of citation she/he prefers before you start the paper. This avoids a time crunch in which error and omission can occur.
• Always submit separate papers for different courses. The use of a single paper, or even parts of it, for more than one course is prohibited, unless instructors' permission is obtained in advance.

Many good sources instructing on proper form for source citation are readily available. A half dozen are listed below.

Baker, Sheridan. The Practical Stylist. New York: Thomas Crowell, 1973.

Ebbitt, David and Ebbitt, Wilma. Index to English. Glenview: Scott, Foresman, 1977.

Guth, Hans. Concise English Handbook. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing, 1977. Modern Language Association. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. New York. 1977.

Turabian, Kate. Student's Guide for Writing College Papers. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.

Watkins, Floyd and Dillingham, William. Practical English Handbook. Boston: Houghton Miffin, 1982.

General style manuals and guides in scientific fields include the following:

American Medical Association. Stylebook: Editorial Manual. 6th ed. Acton: Publishing Sciences Group, 1976.

Fleischer, E.B. A Style Manual For Citing Microform and Nonprint Media. Chicago: American Library Association, 1979.

Mullins, C.J. A Guide to Writing and publishing in the Social and Behavioral Sciences. New York: John Wiley & Son Inc., 1977.

Treleases, S.F. How to Write Scientific and Technical Papers. Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1975.

For specific fields consult:

Astronomy:
The Astrophysical Journal. A Manual of Style for the Astrophysical Journal. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972.

Biology:
Council of Biological Editors. CBE Style Manual. 3rd ed. Washington: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1972.

Chemistry:
American Chemical Society. Handbook for Authors of Papers in American Chemical Society Publications. Washington: 1978.

Gensler, W., Gensler, K. Writing Guide for Chemists. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., 1961.

Geology:
American Geological Institute. Geowriting: A Guide to Writing, Editing, and Printing in Earth Science. Falls Church: 1974.

Mathematics:
American Mathematical Society. A Manual for Authors of Mathematical Papers. 5th ed. Providence: 1973.

 

Physics:
American Institute of Physics Publications Board. Style Manual. Rev. ed. New York: 1973.

Psychology:
American Psychological Association. Manual of the American Psychological Association. 2nd ed. Washington: 1975.

Definition of Plagiarism

Martin, Ohmann, and Wheatley's "Definition of Plagiarism" is an authoritative and thorough commentary on what plagiarism is and its variety of forms. This essay offers material that should serve to sharpen students' sensitivity and skill in the use of sources.

(From The Logic and Rhetoric of Exposition, 3rd ed. by Harold C. Martin, Richard M. Ohmann and James H. Wheatley, pages 268-273. Copyright 1963 by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Inc. Reprinted by permission of CBS College Publishing.)

The academic counterpart of the bank embezzler and of the manufacturer who mislabels his products is the plagiarist, the student or scholar who leads his reader to believe that what he is reading is the original work of the writer when it is not. If it could be assumed that the distinction between plagiarism and honest use of sources is perfectly clean in everyone's mind, there would be no need for the explanation that follows; merely the warning with which this definition concludes would be enough. But it is apparent that sometimes men of good will draw the suspicion of guilt upon themselves (and, indeed, are guilty) simply because they are not aware of the illegitimacy of certain kinds of "borrowing" and of the procedures for correct identification of materials other than those gained through independent research and reflection.

The spectrum is a wide one. At one end there is a word-for-word copying of another's writing without enclosing the copied passage in quotation marks and identifying it in a footnote, both of which are necessary. (This includes, of course, the copying of all or any part of another student's paper.) It hardly seems possible that anyone of college age or more could do that without clear intent to deceive. At the other end there is the almost casual slipping in of an particularly apt term which one has come across in reading and which so admirably expresses one's opinion that one is tempted to make it personal property. Between these two poles there are degrees and degrees, but they may be roughly placed into two groups. Close to outright and blatant deceit--but more the result, perhaps, of laziness that of bad intent-- is the patching together of random jottings made in the course of reading, generally without careful identification of their source, and then woven into the text, so that the result is a mosaic of other people's ideas and words, the writer's sole contribution being the cement to hold the pieces together. Indicative of more effort and, for that reason somewhat close to honesty, though still dishonest, is the paraphrase, an abbreviated (and often skillfully prepared) restatement of someone else's analysis or conclusion, without acknowledging that another person's text has been the basis for the recapitulation.

The examples given below should make clear the dishonest and the proper use of source material. If instances occur which these examples do not seem to cover, conscience will in all likelihood be prepared to supply advice.

The Source

The importance of the Second Treatise of Government printed in this volume is such that without it we should miss some of the familiar features of our own government. It is safe to assert that the much more criticized branch known as the Supreme Court obtained its being as a result of Locke's insistence upon the separation of powers, and that the combination of many powers in the hands of the executive under the New Deal has still to encounter opposition because it is contrary to the principles enunciated therein, the effect of which is not spent, though the relationship may not be consciously traced. Again we see the crystallizing force of Locke's writing. It renders explicit and adapts to the British politics of his day the trend and aim of writers from Languet and Bodin through Hooker and Grotius, to say nothing of the distant ancients, Aristotle, and the Stoic school of natural law. It sums up magisterially the arguments used through ages to attack authority vested in a single individual, but it does so from the particular point of view endangered by the revolution of 1688 and is in harmony with the British scene and mental climate of the growing Bourgeoisie of that age. Montesquieu and Rousseau, the framers of our own Declaration of Independence, and the statesmen (or should we say merchants and spectators?) who drew up the Constitution have re-echoed its claims for human liberty, for the separation of powers, for the sanctity of private property. In the hands of these it has been the quarry of liberal doctrines and that it has served the Socialist theory of property based on labor is final proof of its breadth of view.

CHARLES SHERMAN, "Introduction" to John Locke, Treatise of a Civil Government and a Letter Concerning Toleration.

1. Word-for-Word Plagiarizing

It is not hard to see the importance of the Second Treatise of Government to our own democracy. Without it we should miss some of the most familiar features of out own government. It is safe to assert that the much criticized branch known as the Supreme Court obtained its being as a result of Locke's insistence upon the separation of powers: and that the combination of many powers in the hands of the executive under the New Deal has still to encounter opposition because it is contrary to the principles enunciated therein, the effect of which is not spent, though the relationship may not be consciously traced. The framers of our own Declaration of Independence and the statesmen who drew up the Constitution have re-echoed its claims for human liberty, for the separation of powers, for the sanctity of private property. All these are marks of the influence of Locke's Second Treatise on our own way of life.

In this example, after composing half of a first sentence, the writer copies exactly what is in the original text, leaving out the center section of the paragraph and omitting the names of Montesquieu and Rousseau where he takes up the text again. The last sentence is also the writer's own.

If the writer had enclosed all the copied text in quotation marks and identified the source in a footnote, he would not have been liable to the charge of plagiarism; a reader might justifiably have felt, however, that the writer's personal contribution to the discussion was not very significant.

2. The Mosaic

The crystallizing force of Locke's writing may be seen in the effect his Second Treatise of Government had in shaping some of the familiar features of our own government. That much criticized branch known as the Supreme Court and the combination of many powers in the hands of the executive under the New Deal are modern examples. But even the foundations of our state- the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution- have re-echoed its claims for human liberty, for the separation of powers, for the sanctity of private property. True, the influence of others is also marked in our Constitution - from the trend and aim of writers like Languet and Bodin, Hooker and Grotius, to say nothing of Aristotle and the Stoic school of natural law: but the fundamental influence is Locke's Treatise, the very quarry of liberal doctrines.

Note how the following phrases have been lifted ut of the original text and moved into new patterns:

• crystallizing force of Locke's writing some of the familiar features of our own government
• much criticized branch known as the Supreme Court
• combination of many powers in the hands of the executive under the New Deal
• have re-echoed its claims for human liberty...property
• from the trend and aim...Grotius
• to say nothing of Aristotle and...natural law
• quarry of liberal doctrines.

As in the first example, there is really no way of legitimizing such a procedure. To put every stolen phrase within quotation marks would produce an almost unreadable, and quite worthless, text.

3. The Paraphrase

 
   
PARAPHRASE: Many fundamental aspects of our own government are  
   
 
   
ORIGINAL: Many familiar features of our own government are 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   apparentin the Second Treatise of Government.  One can safely 
   
 
   
apparent in the Second Treatise of Government.  It is safe to 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   say that the oft-censured Supreme Court really owes its existence 
   
 
   
assert that the much criticized...Court obtained its
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   reference to the Lockean demand that powers in government be kept 
   
 
   
a result of Locke's insistence upon the separation of powers; 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   separate; equally one can say that the allocation of varied 
   
 
   
and the combination of many powers 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   and widespread authority to the president during the era of 
   
 
   
in the hands of the executive under the 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   the New Deal has still to encounter opposition because it is 
   
 
   
New Deal has still to encounter opposition because it is 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   contrary to the principles enunciated therein...Once more it 
   
 
   
contrary to the principles enunciated therein...Again we see 
   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   is possible to note the way in which Locke's writing clarified 
   
 
   
the crystallizing force of Locke's writing.  

The foregoing interlinear presentation shows clearly how the writer has simply traveled along with the original text, substitution approximately equivalent terms except where his understanding fails him, as it does with "crystallizing", or where the ambiguity of the original is too great a tax on his ingenuity for him to proceed, as it is with "to encounter opposition...consciously traced" in the original.

Such a procedure as the one shown in this example has its uses; for one thing, it is valuable for the student's own understanding of the passage; and it may be valuable for the reader as well. How, then, may it be properly used? The procedure is simple. The writer might begin the second sentence with: "as Sherman notes in the introduction to his edition of the Treatise, one can safely say..." and conclude the paraphrased passage with a footnote giving the additional identification necessary. Or he might indicate directly the exact nature of what he is doing in this fashion: "To paraphrase Sherman's comment..." and conclude that also with a footnote indicator.

In point of fact, this source does not particularly lend itself to honest paraphrase, with the exception of the one sentence which the paraphraser above copied without change except for abridgement. The purpose of paraphrase should be to simplify or to through a new and significant light in a text; it requires much skill if it is to be honestly used and should rarely be resorted to by the student except for the purpose, as was suggested above, of his personal enlightenment.

4. The "Apt" Term

The Second Treatise of Government is a veritable quarry of liberal doctrines. In it the crystallizing force of Locke's writing is markedly apparent. The cause of human liberty, the principle of separation of powers, and the inviolability of private property - all three, major dogmas of American constitutionalism - owe their presence in our Constitution in large part to the remarkable Treatise which first appeared around 1685 and was destined to spark, within three years, a revolution in the land of its author's birth and, ninety years later, another revolution against that land.

Here the writer has not been able to resist the appropriation of two striking terms-- "quarry of liberal doctrines" and "crystallizing force"; a perfectly proper use of the terms would have required only the addition of a phrase: the Second Treatise is, to use Sherman's suggestive expression, a "quarry of liberal doctrines." In it the "crystallizing force" -- the term again is Sherman's -- of Locke's writing is markedly apparent...

Other phrases in the text above-- "the cause of human liberty," "the principle of the separation of powers," "the inviability of private property" -- are clearly drawn directly from the original source but are so much matters in the public domain, so to speak, that no one could reasonably object to their re-use in this fashion.

Since one of the principle aims of a college education in the development of intellectual honesty, it is obvious that plagiarism is a particularly serious offence, and the punishment of it is commensurately severe. What a penalized student suffers can never really known by anyone but himself: what the student who plagiarizes and "gets away with" suffers is less public and probably less acute, but the corruptness of his act, the disloyalty and baseness it entails, must inevitably leave a mark on him as well as on the institution of which he is a member.

Harold C. Martin and Richard M. Ohmann, The Logic and Rhetoric of Exposition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., Revised Edition 1963.

Return to Policies and Legislation Page

[Meet the Division] [Advising and Academic Support Services] [Calendars & Events] [Campus Life]
[Center for Work & Service] [Financial Matters] [For Parents, Families & Friends]
[Health, Wellness & Safety] [Honor Code] [Policies & Legislation] [Contact Information]