Research Interests:

COGNITIVE STRATEGIES: Most of my research has focused on the strategies that individuals use to pursue their goals. In much of my work, I've contrasted a strategy called defensive pessimism used by anxious people to help them manage their anxiety so they can work productively. Defensive pessimism involves lowering expectations to help prepare oneself for the worst, and then mentally playing through all the bad things that might happen. Though it sounds as if it might be depressing, defensive pessimism actually helps anxious people focus away from their emotions so that they can plan and act effectively I have often contrasted defensive pessimism with a strategy called strategic optimism, which is typically used by people who aren't anxious. Individuals using this strategy set high expectations, and then actively avoid thinking much about what might happen. Both strategic optimists and defensive pessimists typically do quite well, but both groups are also vulnerable to situations that don't accommodate their strategies. My experimental research shows that if defensive pessimists try to raise their expectations, or avoid playing through a worst-case analysis, their anxiety increases and their performance suffers. If strategic optimists set lower expectations or play through possible outcomes, their anxiety increases and their performance decreases.

I've recently completed a 5 year longitudinal study of goal pursuit, social relationships, self-knowledge and adaptation among college women, in which I've found that anxious people who use defensive pessimism show significant improvement in self-esteem and significantly more progress toward their goals than anxious people who are more optimistic.

IMPOSTOR PHENOMENON: In the past few years I've begun studying what Pauline Clance (1985) has called "The Impostor Phenomenon." She uses this label to refer to persistent feelings that one has fooled others into believing that one is smarter/more competent than one really is. Impostors fear "discovery," are perfectionistic, and have trouble internalizing success.

My students and I have found that impostors report low levels of voice (see Susan Harter's work) across many of their relationships. Data from my longitudinal study suggest that, while they perform well academically, impostors--perhaps because they rarely feel that they can act naturally--have trouble forming supportive friendships, even after several years.

I've also found that female impostors tend to have strongly conflicting "possible selves." Possible selves are mental constructions of how we think we might be. Ought possible selves refer to how we think we should be, and Ideal possible selves refer to how we would like to be. Impostors have communally oriented ought selves, that appear to stem from stereotypical conceptions of femininity, and agentically oriented ideal selves, that resemble stereotypical conceptions of masculinity.

Representative Publications

On defensive pessimism and cognitive strategies:
Norem, J. K. & Cantor, N. (1986). Anticipatory and post hoc cushioning strategies: Optimism and defensive pessimism in "risky" situations. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 347-362.

Norem, J. K. & Cantor, N. (1986). Defensive pessimism: "Harnessing" anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1208-1217.

Cantor, N., Norem, J. K., Niedenthal, P. M., Langston, C. A., & Brower, A. M. (1987). Life tasks and cognitive strategies in a life transition [Special issue]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Person and Situation Interactions, 53, 1178-1191.

Norem, J. K. (1989). Cognitive strategies as personality: Effectiveness, specificity, flexibility and change. In D. M. Buss and N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality Psychology : Recent Trends and Emerging Issues (pp. 45-60). New York: Springer-Verlag. [Reprinted in Funder, D. C. & D. J. Ozer (1997) Pieces of the Personality Puzzle (pp. 487-497). New York: W. W. Norton & Co.]

Norem, J. K. & Illingworth, K. S. S. (1993) Strategy dependent effects of reflecting on self and tasks: Some implications of optimism and defensive pessimism. Journal of Personality and Social Personality, 65, 822-835.

Spencer, S. M. & Norem, J. K. (1996). Strategy-dependent effects of imagery and relaxation manipulations: Defensive pessimism, optimism and performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 354-365.

Norem, J. K. (2000). Defensive pessimism, optimism and pessimism. In E. C. Chang (Ed.) Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research and Practice. Washington, D. C.: APA Press.

Norem, J. K. & Chang, E. C. (2000). A very full glass: Adding complexity to our thinking about the implications and applications of optimism and pessimism research. In E. C. Chang (Ed.) Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research and Practice. Washington, D. C.: APA Press.

Norem, J. K. (2001). The Positive Power of Negative Thinking. New York: Basic Books.

On gender:
Clinchy, B. M. & Norem, J. K. (1998). Coda: In-conclusion. In Clinchy, B. M. & Norem, J. K. (Eds). Gender and Psychology Reader. New York: New York University Press.

Clinchy, B. M. & Norem, J. K. (Eds). (1998) Gender and Psychology Reader. New York: New York University Press.

On personality:
Norem, J. K. (1998). Why should we lower our defenses about defense mechanisms.? [Special Issue] Journal of Personality: On Current Research and Theory on Defense Mechanisms, 66, 895-917.

Robins, R. W., Norem, J. K., & Cheek, J. M. (1999). Naturalizing the self. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality (2nd Edition). New York: Guilford.

Works in Progress:
Norem, J. K. (in press). The positive psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Norem, J. K. Pessimism. To appear in E. C. Chang & L. R. Sanna (Eds). Personality, Strategy and Adjustment: Beyond Virtue and Vice. Washington, D. C.: APA Press. (Scheduled publication data Spring 2002).

Norem, J. K. Defensive pessimism and self-esteem change: A longitudinal study of managing anxiety for personal growth. Manuscript in preparation.

Norem, J. K. & Illingworth, K. S. (2000). Mood and performance among strategic optimists and defensive pessimists. Manuscript under revision.

Worcel, S. D. & Norem, J. K. (2000). The impostor phenomenon: Implications for academic and social adjustment among college women. Manuscript under revision.

Norem, J. K. , Bernhard, R. & Gower, A. Conflict between agentic and nurturant possible selves.