Guide for Dialogue Facilitators

GUIDE FOR DIALOGUE FACILITATORS

Before we can have a discussion about facilitating, we must first have an understanding of the dialogue process.  Dialogue is a conversation on a common subject between two or more persons of differing views.  The primary purpose of dialogue is for each person to learn from the other so that each can change and grow.

Dialogue is not a lecture, the purpose of which is giving or obtaining information, nor is it is a debate in which there will be a winner and/or a loser.  Further, dialogue is not an argument which focuses solely on reflective reasoning.  Although this is part of process, true dialogue also takes into account the feelings and experiences of participants.

Dialogue can be enlightening, challenging and even threatening.  It is the job of the facilitator to nurture this process so that all participants feel safe and are able to share with one another.

What are the characteristics of a good facilitator?

A good facilitator not only guides the dialogue process, but actually represents the process in a group. Each participant must feel validated and valued by the facilitator in order to become vested in the process.  This is why it is so important for a facilitator to suspend judgment of the behaviors and attitudes of group members while being cognizant of their feelings.  Having all participants fully vested in the process enables the group to move beyond introductions and niceties and begin true dialogue. This can only be accomplished by inviting participation from all members of the group, regardless of opinion or point of view. 

A good facilitator should be aware of his/her own feelings, ideas and attitudes.  We all have opinions, feelings, likes and dislikes.  These are the things that make us unique individuals.  However, when facilitating, these personality characteristics must take a back seat to the group process.  A good facilitator is able to step back from who s/he is as an individual and exist for the sake of the group.

On a more practical note, a facilitator should have a clear understanding of the purposes and goals of the group before a session begins.  It is impossible to keep a group task oriented when the facilitator is not sure what the given task is.  It is also essential that a facilitator be able to articulate the task(s) or purpose(s) of the group to participants.  This, coupled with the ability to clearly explain procedures for setting up the process will ease the anxiety of participants and allow them to begin dialogue.  

Acting as timekeeper is a mundane function, but a necessary one.  Starting and ending sessions on time helps build trust.  Being able to recap past sessions and summarize the current session can help the group make good use of time.  It also enables participants to see that the facilitator was paying attention.

What skills are needed?

The primary emphasis of training facilitators should focus on the development of key listening and responding skills.  The most basic listening skills are called attending behaviors.  Attending behaviors allow participants to actually observe that the facilitator is paying attention to the process.  There are three observable skills that are associated with attending behaviors.  They are as follows:
            
1.      use of eye contact.  Looking at someone when they speak allows them to see that you are paying attention to them. However, beware of falling into the trap of staring at people.  This makes them uneasy and defeats the purpose.  On the other hand, looking away from a participant who is dominating a group or is rambling lets him/her know that time is up.

2.      use of  body language.  Most people do not realize how powerful this skill can be.  Think of a social situation in which one person is sitting with crossed legs and arms and staring at the ceiling.  Standing next to that person is someone who is making eye contact with others in the room and smiling.  With which person would you rather speak?  In most cases, the person who seems open and inviting is the person with whom who we choose to socialize.  The same can be said about the group situation.  A facilitator who uses relaxed, open postures and natural gestures places participants at ease with the process and invites participation.  It is not necessary for a facilitator to smile falsely or sit rigidly, however one's body should be used to communicate that one is involved in and relaxed with the process. 

         Body language can also be used to let a participant know that s/he is dominating the dialogue or running overtime.  Looking directly at the speaker and crossing arms or legs sends a non-verbal cue that it is time to stop talking.  Conversely, looking at a quiet participant and gently smiling and nodding can send the message that it is not only OK, but desirable that s/he share with the group.

         It is important to note that in a group larger than 20 people or seated in auditorium style seating, the body language of the facilitator must be more pronounced.  For example, when a participant speaks, making eye contact with him/her is not enough.  The facilitator should physically move in the direction of that person either by turning or walking toward him/her.
            
3.      use of discretion.  The dialogue will achieve its own natural pace.  Do not try to rush it or slow it down if participants seem content with it.  Do not cut off topics or introduce new topics prematurely.  Alert participants when ten minutes are left in a session and give them the option of wrapping up or extending the meeting.    

It is important to note that the skills described above are based on American and Western culture.  The patterns of all three skills vary from culture to culture.

As previously stated, attending behaviors allow a facilitator to show participants that s/he is paying attention to the process.  However,  merely observing the process is not enough.  As facilitators, we must also demonstrate that we hear and understand the content of what is being communicated.

Helping clarify lengthy or confusing statements for the group (and sometimes for the speaker) illustrates understanding.  The process of restating the essence of  what a speaker has said is called paraphrasing. This skill is more difficult to develop than it seems.  Remember, the point here is not to interpret, but to clarify.  Do not paraphrase if it is not necessary.  If a speaker has been clear, there is no need to restate their point. 

When asking for clarification or prompting more discussion, a facilitator can use open-ended questions. These are questions that cannot be answered with a simple one or two word statement.  Use of these questions invites participants to further explore a topic or opinion.  On the other hand, use of closed questions, that is questions that can be answered with simple short answers, gives a speaker the message that it is time to stop talking.

It is important that the dialogue not turn into a conversation between the participants and the facilitator. There is rarely the need for a facilitator to respond verbally to each speaker.  Acknowledging speakers with non-verbal cues such as nodding or smiling will usually suffice.  At the beginning of the dialogue process, it is important that every group member's voice be heard equally.  This is more easily achieved if each participant is given the opportunity to speak for a specified amount of time without interruption.  The facilitator should speak only if s/he is addressed directly.  After all participants have had a chance to speak, the facilitator should verbally invite participants to engage in open dialogue.  If dialogue does not happen freely, the facilitator should point out recurring themes or concerns.  This usually prompts dialogue to begin.

It is not always necessary to respond the content of statements made by group members to demonstrate understanding.  If several participants vocalize the same feelings or emotions but in different contexts, a facilitator can acknowledge these feelings or emotions and not the specifics of each statement.  This is called reflection of feeling.  When using reflection of feeling, a facilitator responds to emotion or affect instead of cognitive statements.

An important aspect of this skill, and of all the skills discussed in this manual, is the ability to understand an issue from the perspective of the speaker.  This is known as empathy. If a facilitator is able to express empathy for group members, a sense of connectedness develops which allows each participant to feel valued, validated and safe to interact.   

How should a space be prepared for dialogue?

Before the participants arrive for a dialogue session, a facilitator must examine the space in which the group will meet. Some of the following guidelines may seem self-evident.  Experience would indicate that they are not.  All of these elements are worth considering carefully.

It is important that the temperature in the room is comfortable.  If it is too hot, participants will become groggy and unable to concentrate.  If it is too cold, participants will become distracted.

Lighting is also important.  If lights are too dim, participants will not be able to see each other.  In a large group, dim lighting can cause eye strain as participants try to look across a room at each other.  If poster board or a chalk board is being used, be sure there is sufficient lighting where each is stationed so that the writing is easy to see.

Dialogue should take place in a quiet space.  Noise causes distraction.  Dialogue demands concentration.   Every effort should be made to ensure a calm and quiet atmosphere.

The ideal seating arrangement for dialogue is a circle.  This will enable participants to see each other as they speak. This constant eye contact keeps them engaged in the process.   However, if the group is over 20 people, a double circle or auditorium style seating should be considered.

Facilitators should also make sure to obtain a list of all participants before the session begins.  This will allow him/her to ascertain when all participants have arrived as well as provide a list from which to write out name tags.  Name tags should be clearly written and contain any pertinent identifying information.  For example, in addition to one's name, the school one attends or the company for which one works might be important.

What happens during the first meeting of a dialogue group?

After group members arrive and are seated in a circle, participants should be welcomed.  After introducing him/herself, the facilitator should go around the circle and have each participant state his/her name and what s/he is most excited about experiencing and/or what s/he is most anxious about experiencing.  Each group member should be given 1 - 1 1/2 minutes to speak.  The purpose of this exercise is to allow each participant to hear his or her own voice in the group.  If a person is engaged in the process from the beginning, s/he will feel ownership of that group immediately.  Because each participant is asked to speak about the same issues and within the same time parameters, each is given equal ownership and access to the process.  This is important ground work for later discussions.

At this point, the program model or purpose(s)/goal(s) of the dialogue should be described.  This short presentation should invite group members into the process.  There should then be an opportunity for participants to ask questions in regard to what they are about to experience.

After all questions have been answered, the facilitator should read the Rights, Responsibilities and Skills of dialogue (see Appendix A)out loud.  After each item is read, time should be allotted for clarification and discussion.  Participants should be told that these are the guidelines of our dialogue.  If at any time a group member feels that these guidelines have been violated, s/he should say so immediately.

The facilitator should close the session by describing what will happen next time the group meets or what activity the participants will be attending next.  This session should last about one hour.

What happens during subsequent meetings of a dialogue group?

Because the purpose(s) and/or goal(s) of each group are different, the agendas of subsequent meetings will be different.  However, a facilitator can help a group run smoothly by utilizing the skills previously discussed. 

It is usually a good idea to begin each session by allowing participants to reflect on a particular experience, presentation, lecture, topic or question for two minutes in silence.  This is done so that each group member can think about what s/he wants to say in advance so that each participant can listen to the others as they speak.

Again, it is a good idea to explain that each participant will be given the opportunity to speak for 1 - 1 1/2 minutes without interruption.  As each member speaks, recurring themes will emerge.  Allow everyone to speak before permitting open dialogue.  Again, this should be done so that everyone hears their own voice in the group and feels that all participants are equally vested in the group.  If someone asks a question or brings up a point they want addressed immediately, simply state that their issue is an important one and the group will return to it after everyone has had the opportunity to speak.

If open dialogue does not happen naturally, the facilitator can point out the recurring issues or points of tension to the group.  This usually opens up the dialogue and gives participants permission to speak. Because all participants were given ownership of the group, it becomes a safe place to dialogue.  During these subsequent sessions, the bond felt by participants deepens as feelings are shared.

What happens during the final meeting of a dialogue group?

Not all dialogue groups end.  If  a group has come together for a finite amount of time, there will be a final meeting.  This final meeting is a time for closure. 

The same procedure outlined above should be followed, but the question posed to group members should allow participants to summarize their personal experience of the program or dialogue.  A good example of  a closing question might be "What will I take home with me from this program?"

After all participants have had the chance to speak and dialogue has taken place, the facilitator can summarize any recurring themes and briefly state his/her own closing thoughts about the process.  If there were specific goals or purposes of the dialogue, the facilitator can discuss them and how there were or were not met.  Remember, it is always important to end on a positive note.

What are the most common challenging situations and how should they be handled?

The best method for handling challenging situations is to anticipate them and be prepared.  Each discussion is a unique experience, providing new opportunities for the facilitator.  Those who have been active leaders for many years are often faced with new problems requiring on-the-spot creative action.  There are no sure answers; sometimes groups just do not go well and other times all participants seem very satisfied.

Here are some of the most frequently observed situations and some general principles for handling them.

Several participants arrive late after the dialogue has already begun. The objective here is to help the late-comers feel included while minimizing the interruption.  A leader might:

            --direct a welcoming smile to them.
            --pause and check seating, if necessary.
            --provide a very brief summary including only what they need to know to participate, so                                      as not to penalize those on time.
            
There are a few new members in the group. Show concern for the opening content of the meeting.  It should include introductions of member and newcomers.  Be sure that name tags are large enough to be read. Always assume that most people need to be brought up to date.  Briefly summarize the last meeting.

The group is slow in responding to provocative questions.

            --pause long enough for participants to gather their thoughts.  
            --Reword the question.
            --break down the question into smaller elements.
            --ask the group for permission to go on to the next item. 

The group seems restless or bored. 
            
            --Check the setting for distractions.
            --Is it time for a short break?
            --post on chalk board or newsprint pad the progress of the discussion and each conclusion                                  reached.
--remind the group of the time frame.  "We have one more item to cover before breaking."          

One or a few people dominate the discussion. The facilitator's responsibility is to draw out others in the group. 

            --utilize the skills outlined earlier in this manual.
            --set ground rules for discussion which include 
                        1. one speaker at a time.
                        2. time limit on speaking.
                        3. a speaker cannot have an additional turn to speak to the same issue until                                                        all others wishing to respond have done so.
           

Participants bring up side issues which take the group off course.

            --summarize what has gone before to bring the group back.
            --ask the speaker how the issue ties in with the group's topic.
            --make no comment, smile and go onto the next speaker.
--ask the group if they wish to deal with the side issue.  Maybe this participant  has interjected a vital matter which will help the group to meet its goal.

One member tells long, personal stories or rambles on an on.  While personal anecdotes often add interest and humanness to any discussion, they can lead the group astray, bore them or prove to be irreverent. Try to limit story tellers and ramblers.

--if the group has heard enough, sum up for the speaker by interrupting when s/he pauses to take a breath.
            --thank the speaker for sharing and bring the group back to task.
            --if all else fails, call time!

Side conversations annoy the group during a discussion.

            --say, "All opinions are important, so let's have just one voice at a time so all can hear                                          what is being said."
            --quicken the pace of the dialogue.  Sometimes side talkers are just bored.
            
A facilitator feels strongly about an issue and has difficulty remaining unbiased.  As previously stated, a facilitator must learn how to take a step back from who s/he is and exist solely for the good of the group.  Occasionally, the group can benefit from hearing a point of view that is not represented in the make up of the group.  An example of this might be a group discussion about Judiam when there are no Jews in the group.  In this instance, a Jewish facilitator can say that s/he is "switching hats and acting as a participant for a brief time so that a Jewish voice can be heard."  When this is done, it is imperative that a facilitator be clear about which role s/he is in at any given time.  This technique should be used sparingly.  Before switching roles,  a facilitator should ask ihim/herself f this is being done to help the group or to fill his/her own personal needs.  If the answer is the latter, this should not be done.

Issues that carry an emotional charge for many people.  

A facilitator should be aware that nearly all issues have an emotional angle or connotation. This is largely due to the fact that each person has had life experiences that evoke different sensitivities.  Remember that all feelings that participants express in discussions are legitimate.  None are right or wrong.  Factual information is often open for debate, emotions are not.  The role of the facilitator is to recognize feelings as they are expressed and to let speakers know they've been heard so the discussion process can continue.  Utilizing the attending behaviors and listening skills described in this manual can help a facilitator accomplish this.

APPENDIX A

RIGHTS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND SKILLS OF DIALOGUE

For true dialogue to occur it needs to take place within a protective environment of mutually accepted rights and responsibilities, rooted in two fundamental values: respect for the human person and trust in the process of dialogue.  Dialogue works best when the participants are willing to develop certain skills that facilitate the process.

The Guide for Dialogue Facilitators and the Rights, Responsibilities and Skills of Dialogue are adapted from materials originally produced for the National Conference for Community and Justice.

APPENDIX B

COMPARISON OF DIALOGUE AND DEBATE

Dialogue is collaborative: two or more sides work together toward common understanding.
            Debate is oppositional: two sides oppose each other and attempt to prove each other wrong.

In dialogue, finding common ground is the goal.
            In debate, winning is the goal.

In dialogue, one listens to the other side(s) in order to understand, find meaning, and find agreement.
            In debate, one listens to the other side in order to find flaws and to counter its arguments.

Dialogue enlarges and possibly changes a participant’s point of view.
            Debate affirms a participant’s own point of view.

Dialogue reveals assumptions for re-evaluation.
            Debate defends assumptions as truth.

Dialogue causes introspection on one’s own position.
            Debate causes critique of the other’s position.

Dialogue opens the possibility of reaching a better solution than any of the original solutions.
            Debate defends one’s own positions as the best solution and excludes other solutions.

Dialogue creates an open-minded attitude: an openness to being wrong and an openness to change.
            Debate creates a closed-minded attitude, a determination to be right.

In dialogue, one submits one’s best thinking, knowing that other people’s refections will help improve it rather than destroy it.
            In debate, one submits one’s best thinking and defends it against challenge to show that it is right.

Dialogue calls for temporarily suspending one’s beliefs.
            Debate calls for investing completely in one’s beliefs.

In dialogue, one searches for basic agreements.
            In debate, one searches for glaring differences.

In dialogue, one searches for strengths in the other positions.
            In debate, one searches for flaws and weaknesses in the other position.

Dialogue involves a concern for the other person and seeks to not alienate or offend.
Debate involves a countering of the other position without focusing on feelings or relationship and often belittles or deprecates the other person.

Dialogue assumes that many people have pieces of the answer and that together they can develop them into a workable solution.
            Debate assumes that there is a right answer and that someone has it.

The Comparison of Dialogue and Debate was adapted from discussions of the Dialogue Group of the Boston Chapter of Educators for Social Responsibility.

APPENDIX C

GUIDE FOR SMALL GROUP LEADERS

APPENDIX D

GROUP MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS

The maintenance functions of a group focus on how the group pursues its task.  These functions involve feelings, moods, attitudes, needs, and the growth of individual members and the group as a whole.  Conflict, antagonism, lack of cooperation and apathy are signs that maintenance functions are being neglected.  The effective group, however, learns that consistent maintenance not only resolves problems, it makes working together a rewarding experience.  A good group experience contributes to the growth of individual members.  When members are clear about their needs and the group’s needs, when they feel free to express those needs, and when their means of satisfying those needs are productive for the group, then they are fully involved in the group; they are able to help it develop into maturity.  Such experiences enable members to become skillful and responsible group members, rather than merely being followers of a leader.

Gatekeeping

Gatekeeping is the function of keeping the group “door” open for the more timid, less talkative members to contribute if and when they wish to.  This function may be carried out by the leader or any member who is sensitive to others’ needs.

The amount of participation by each individual in most meetings varies considerably.  Wide discrepancies may nean that some individuals would like to participate more but do not feel that they can for a variety of reasons – timidity, previous experience of rejection, inability to break through the loud dominance of a few, desire to stay out of a conflict, feeling that someone has already said what they might have said.  If a member who had not participated in a meeting were interviewed after the meeting, s/he might say that s/he had nothing to say that was not already said.  A little more probing might reveal that s/he did not think s/he would be heard or the s/he felt others might be impatient because s/he was a slow talker.

A person who speaks infrequently may sometimes lean forward with his/her mouth half open as if to speak, only to have someone else rush in with a comment.  The silent member then closes his/her mouth and sinks back in his/her chair.  The group loses a contribution that might have been helpful, and the member may experience personal inadequacy, buried resentment toward the group, or hostility toward the dominant members.  This situation, which occurs in almost all meetings where more verbal persons dominate, reflects a problem of group maintenance.  Effective group cohesion and growth require that members become sensitive to the pattern of participation in their group and aid each other.  Although an individual may feel deeply involved in the discussion while remaining silent, it is important to know whether his/her silence stems from fear or choice.  Acceptance and identity are enhanced by participation.

The gatekeeping function can be overdone.  The individual member may have no desire to participate at the time or feel embarrassed when forced to say something.  Perhaps s/he feels uninvolved in the current issue or truly has nothing to contribute.  Careful observation of body cues – posture and facial expressions – as well as evidence of a long period of nonparticipation should precede any attempt to serve as a gatekeeper for another member.  Gatekeeping should be done with vocal evidence of caring both for the individual and for the group.  Otherwise, pressures for conformity can build up to a point where no member feels free to be natural in his/her contributions, and gatekeeping is used to produce guilt.  Howeever, sensitive gatekeeping is vital to good group morale; without it some members remain isolated and rejected, and potential contributions are lost.

Encouraging

Frequently, members need encouragement to participate in the meeting.  Often an individual feels uncertain about the value of his/her contribution and presents a hesitating, poorly expressed idea that is passed over by more dominant members.  If a member or the leader notices that the member’s hesitation – rather than the quality of the idea – results in the point being ignored, s/he can give encouragement in a number of ways:  by asking for elaboration; by restating the idea so that it is clear (with due credit to the originator); or by adding to the idea.

Frequently a leader can help t keep the group in good working order by calling attention to problems members may not perceive and by encouraging them to:

• Experiment with a new approach to a problem
• Change, temporarily, the meeting agenda
• Dig deeper into the subject
• Explore new avenues to the goal
• Test ideas before making decisions

A leader can also serve the group by showing in a caring and concerned way, rather than in a punishing and demanding way, how members may help each other.  As in all maintenance functions, sensitivity and watchfulness for clues are necessary so that the encouraging function is not overused.

Harmonizing

Frequently conflict may break out in a group over an issue, a plan for proceeding, or an interpersonal difficulty.  Those members who enjoy fighting quickly take sides, polarizing the group.  Those who have difficulty with fighting withdraw while the battle rages around them.  They are loathe to enter the fray even to try to stop it.

The harmonizing function may be helpful in a conflict situation.  The individual who performs this function seeks to find some common ground that both sides can accept, perhaps by locating a solution to the problem that is agreeable to all or by reminding the combatants of what is happening to the group – polarization with half the group on the sidelines.  Members may then recognize that solving conflict by fighting is not a helpful approach to conflict resolution.

Harmonizing should not be confused with attempts to bury or deny conflict.  Conflict in a meeting is inevitable; resolving it constructively is a challenge.  Harmonizing is negotiation between opposing sides in which one member serves as a third-party peacemaker, trying to retrieve the best ideas of both sides.  When overdone, harmonizing dulls the flash of creativity that confrontation can produce.

Consensus Seeking

During many meetings, issues become polarized, neither side will budge, and a win/lose situation develops.  Consensus seeking is the maintenance function that can resolve the polarization.

In a win/lose situation, a group becomes locked into an either/or way of thinking, believing that one party must win and the other faction must lose.  This competitive sitation quickly deteriorates into a lose/lose conclusion.  Those members who lose the argument can sabotage the winning decision by passively refusing to cooperate, by “forgetting” to implement the decision, or by storing up resentment to be used in future conflicts.  The “winners” win the battle, but the “losers” triumph in the end.  When competition and rivalry become intense, everyone loses.

Consensus means that every group member has an opportunity to influence the final decision.  Members of the group reach substantial agreement, not necessarily unanimity.  Consensus cannot be achieved by majority rule, “horse-trading,” or averaging.  Consensus frees the group from either/or thinking and emphasizes the possibilities of both/and thinking by focusing attention on needs and goals.  In consensus seeking it is possible to achieve a solution that all members can regard as fair.  When members strive for what is best for all, rathern trying to triumph over opponents, they fulfill the highest expectations of the democratic tradition.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

Feedback is a report of the impact a given behavior has on an individual member.  It frequently takes the form of “When you said…, I felt…,” providing a check on whether the message received is in fact the message sent.  Giving and receiving feedback is a maintenance function that provides a group with information about its progress.

Feedback is most useful when it is solicited, either by the leader or by individual members.  Statements such as “I’d like to know your reaction to the problem-solving strategy we used this evening” or “I’d appreciate comments about the way I managed the time today.  Did you feel rushed?” are invitations for members to critique the way things are done.  This procedure allows comments on methods, rather than personalities.

Feedback is most effective when it is direct, specific, descriptive, immediate, and shared with the whole group.  Giving and receiving feedback is a skill that has application in most interpersonal situations.

Standard Setting

The setting of standards is needed for both task performance and group maintenance.  Occasionally the group needs to be reminded of its commitment to efficiency, fairness, and open communication.  The person fulfilling this function can urge the members to deal with intra-group or interpersonal conflict instead of attempting to ignore its presence.  The standard-setter can remind the members of the need for their trusting and caring for each other. 

Periodically, the members may wish to discuss the norms or standards that are developing as the group matures.  And if the leader is sensitive to both task and maintenance, then a standard that has emerged implicitly can be made explicit for future work.

Processing

The final ten minutes of a meeting can sometimes be reserved for a quick review, or processing, of how the meeting progressed.  Individuals may volunteer to serve as observers during the session and then report their perceptions.  This review can alert the group to its chronic problems (“We spent forty minutes discussing the budget, although only ten minutes had been allotted to it”) and to its achievements (“For the fourth straight week, we ended on time”).  As members become sensitive to this maintenance function, all can participate in review.

If face-to-face verbal evaluation and feedback is too difficult in the early developmental stages of a group, members can fill out simple forms rating the meeting and indicating what might have been done either by the leader or members to make the meeting more effective.  These forms need not be signed, but can be read aloud, either at the end of the meeting for discussion, or at the beginning of the next meeting.  After defensiveness has been reduced, a group can move to a verbal evaluation.  After this stage, immediate reactions and feedback during the meeting become more possible.

In any meeting, task functions will be more prominent than maintenance functions.  But maintenance is no frill.  Without attention to moods, feelings, and interpersonal relationships, a group chokes its lifeline of energy and motivation to complete the task.  As maintenance functions become second nature to members and they become skilled at diagnosing group problems, teamwork is strengthened and working together produces the satisfaction of a job well done.

APPENDIX E

DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR OF GROUP MEMBERS

Dysfunctional, self-oriented behavior results when groups fail to perform maintenance and group-development functions.  When little attention is given to overt and covert problems – and then only by the leader – members feel little responsibility for the group.  The session becomes the leader’s meeting – not the group’s – and in one sense, no real group exists for individual members.  The tighter the leader controls task functions and a few group functions, the greater the amount of dysfunctional behavior in the group.  Conversely, when the leader shares responsibility and helps members learn how to control and develop their own group, there is less dysfunctional member behavior.

When an individual perceives him/herself as alone in a collection of individuals, s/he is likely to push for his/her own hidden purposes and seek power and status at the expense of others.  S/he may develop fears and dislike others who appear threatening; s/he may seek a few other members with whom s/he can line up for mutual protection; s/he may readily stereotype others on the flimsiest evidence; or disrupt the progress of the task for his/her own ends.  When individual needs and purposes are not accommodated within the group, persons may either withdraw to the psychological shelter of silence or actively pursue their purposes without concern for the feelings of others.  This is particularly true when no standard of group concern is established by the leader.  Then the stage is set for clique formation and competitive struggles for power.

A sensitive observer quickly becomes aware of the many ways in which individual behavior can disrupt group progress, either directly or indirectly.  Because most meetings have unstated norms that prevent the basic needs and purposes of individual members from being revealed openly, individuals find covert ways of expressing their true needs and feelings.  Bouts of pseudo-logical argument, thinly veiled hostility, and an increase in the noise level (as if the loudest were the best argument), whirl around the group without touching the basic interpersonal or personal issue.  The result is a ragged, time-consuming meeting without value to anyone.

COMMON DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORS

Some common dysfunctional behaviors are discussed briefly here, followed by suggestions for how a group-centered leader might handle them.

Blocking

Blocking involves interference with the progress of a group by going off on a tangent, arguing too much on a point, or focusing on irrelevant details.  Blocking halts and derails the meeting from the track of successful work.

The person who blocks discussion may be unaware of his/her motivations, or s/he may consciously block to express his/her antagonism toward the leader or other members.  The blocking member achieves momentary power by focusing attention on him/herself, rather than on the issue.

Power Seeking

When a group’s structure is based on a hierarchy of power and status, the door is open for members to do all they can to gain more power in the group.  Power seeking is seen most clearly in conflicts with the leader or other power figures.  To gain power, individual members may try to create a clique of followers, thus splitting the group.  Subtle ways of twising a decision or trying to appear as the major force in a decision also reflect power-seeking activity.

Some leaders fight to hold on to their authority, but there is danger in becoming involved in an open fight with power-seeking members.  When this occurs most of the group members withdraw from the struggle and remain quiet, while two or three do battle.  Then the group disintegrates as an efficient working force.

Recognition Seeking

When a member draws undue attention to him/herself by talking excessively, advocating extreme ideas, or behaving in an unusual manner, s/he is seeking recognition.  Often, after a statement is made by someone else, the recognition seeker will add an example or repeat in different words what has been said.  S/he may divert the discussion with a meaningless anecdote in which s/he is the center of the tale.  His/her comments are usually self-centered although s/he may endeavor to attach them to the flow of discussion.

Some leaders find such recognition seeking hard to control.  Other leaders, who have helped develop the group’s maintenance skills, trust that recognition seeking will be handled in a straightforward, tactful manner by group members.

Dominating

Loud voices, definitive pronouncements, and endless speeches from members often dominate the discussion and consume valuable time in some meetings.  The dominating behavior of one or two members can prevent other, less forceful members from speaking out; frequently, it produces a tense, combative atmosphere.  Members who dominate are usually insensitive to the needs of others and are unaware of their impact on group members.

Special-interest pleading is another form of domination.  Many meetings are plagued by the speeches of members who lobby for their own interests and insist that their problems be dealt with first.  Such lobbying introduces superfluous issues into the meeting and has the same impact as blocking and dominating behavior.

Clowning

Clowning and joking give a meeting an atmosphere of play rather than work.  Work need not be serious, and occasional comic relief can lighten any group discussion, but persistent joke telling and remarks that contain veiled hostility disrupt a meeting’s progress.

Many other behaviors – silence, denying, polarizing, seeking sympathy or attention – can be dysfunctional in a meeting.  Although such behavior may reflect the personalities of individual members, it is more useful to regard these behaviors as symptoms of inadequate group maintenance which prevent the meeting from operating at its best.

CONFRONTING DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR

The leader can confront dysfunctional behavior by following these general guidelines:

• Confrontation is most effective in a caring context.  Confrontation is an invitation for an individual member to examine carefully his/her behavior and its consequences.  It is a way to express care and concern, not punishment.  If the group has built a level of trust and commitment to group maintenance and team building, confrontation will be seen as a helpful activity.
• The leader should focus attention on the dysfunctional behavior itself and avoid labeling or classifying the person.  Personal labeling only increases individual defensiveness.
• The leader should point out the effects of dysfunctional behavior.  Often, the person who is interfereing with group functioning is unaware of the negative impact of his/her behavior.
• Alternative behaviors should be suggested that will lead to more productive, satisfying participation for the disruptive member – and the rest of the group as well.

In confronting dysfunctional behavior, the leader models a direct, firm, but friendly style that group members can emulate.  The confrontation alerts all members to watch for the occasions that call for group maintenance.  As a group develops into a team, all the members will want to keep the communication lines open and the group’s task in clear focus.

Group Maintenance Functions and Dysfunctional Behavior of Group Members were reproduced from Making Meetings Work: A Guide for Leaders and Group Members by Leland P. Bradford (La Jolla, California: University Associates, Inc.).